There is some disagreement on the definition of learning disability (LD), especially due to the fact that is nonoperational. However, IDEA (2004) states a LD is “a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations,including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include students who have learning disabilities which are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (34 Code of Federal Regulations §300.7(c)(10)).
LD occurs on a continuum encompassing many different severity levels. A LD is developmental, typically occurring before kindergarten and persisting into adulthood (i.e., it is not outgrown). There are five different types of learning disabilities: reading- word level (dyslexia), reading- comprehension, reading-fluency, math, reading and math, written expression. In addition, a child can have LD in more than one of the areas as well (e.g., reading and written expression).
Some common factors underlying LDs include memory (short-term, working, long), phonological processing and metacognition (i.e., knowledge/regulation of one’s cognitive processes and motivational beliefs/effects). “Warning signs” of a LD can include delays in speech/language and emergent literacy skills, perceptual-motor, reasoning, and social interaction. Other risk factors include certain attention/behavior, genetic/environmental and perinatal conditions.
Prevalence of Learning Disabilities:
Learning disabilities are the largest category of disability nationwide (41% of students with disabilities have learning disabilities). Over 2.4 million students (more boys than girls) are diagnosed with LD and receive special education services in the schools (https://www.ideadata.org) - edit link.
How do Learning Disabilities Affect Literacy and Language:
Many learning disorders that are associated with language deficits are commonly seen in the areas of reading, writing, and spelling. Such children with language disorders and a LD demonstrate prolonged latencies on letter, word, color, and object naming. They tend to know fewer words and retain fewer word meanings. Their literal comprehension and fact recall skills can be
Component view of literacy: (Roberts et al.) (Reid & Jacobson)
- Word study (phonics, phonological awareness, phonemic awareness)
- Can decode single-syllable words, but difficulty decoding multisyllabic words
- Fail to use effective word-analysis strategies to determine unfamiliar words
- Fluency
- Read slowly with effort
- Struggle to produce new or unfamiliar words
- Decreased sight word vocabulary
- Vocabulary
- Often avoid independent reading, which limits exposure to new vocabulary
- Difficulty in both reading and listening identification and correction of syntactic errors
- Comprehension
- Do not monitor their comprehension
- Fail to identify misunderstanding and use strategies, such as linking new information to prior knowledge, adjusting reading rate, or strategically rereading passages
- Motivation
- “Limits opportunities to build vocabulary, improve comprehension, and develop effective reading strategies”
- Frustration, making it difficult to find the motivation to complete tasks
- Written expression (Reid & Jacobson; Riccio & Hynd)
- Difficulty spelling
- Impaired motor development impacting handwriting
- Difficulty with expression/text generation
- Fewer words per composition
- Limited vocabulary
- Fewer sentences
- The above performance is continued throughout school years
Language foundations of discourse: (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities)
- Children with learning disabilities have deficits in both receptive and expressive oral language. As the child ages the demands on the components of language such as vocabulary, syntax and semantics become more complex. With the increase in complexity, adolescents often experience greater deficits in oral language. These difficulties impact areas such as figurative language, inferencing, content-specific knowledge, and organization of semantic information. Therefore, the difficulties are likely to lead to impairments with narratives.
- Students with learning disabilities often have difficulties maintaining positive attitudes and motivation in the academic setting. This is due to the deficits in the metacognitive skill of self-awareness of problem-solving abilities for directing their own success.
Multimedia:
- Learning Disabilities, What Are the Different Types? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yG_xSBsFMPQ&feature=plcp
The National Center for Learning Disabilities provides this video in which the different types of learning disabilities are discussed. Expert, Dr. Sheldon Horowitz, presents information on the various components on learning disabilities and discusses how they impact people with learning disabilities. It is presented in a parent or professional friendly way.
- Learning About Learning Disabilities http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GoM5HcfQBwE&feature=related
This video provides viewers an easy to understand presentation of general information about learning disabilities. Additionally, it includes many personal stories of children and adults who live with learning disabilities.
Websites:
- National Center for Learning Disabilities http://www.ncld.org/
This website provides general information about learning disabilities and all the different types of learning it can affect. It includes home, school, and college and work links for support. This website also includes how one can stay updated on the development of national policies regarding those with learning disabilities.
- LD Online http://www.ldonline.org/
This website provides information about current research and issues involved in learning disabilities. It contains links to information for educators, parents, and children. The website also features personal stories, newsletters, and forums.
References:
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities. (2008). Adolescent Literacy and Older
Students With Learning Disabilities [Technical Report]. Retrieved from http://www.asha.org/docs/pdf/TR2008-00304.pdf.
Reid, R., & Jacobson, L. (2010). Learning disabilities. In J. S. Damico, N. Müller and M. J. Ball
(Eds.), The handbook of language and speech disorders (pp.247-266). Oxford, UK.
Riccio, C. W. (1993). Developmental language disorders in children: Relationship with learning
Roberts, G., Torgesen, J. K., Boardman, A., Scammacca, N. (2008). Evidence-based
strategies for reading instruction of older students with learning disabilities. Learning
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